Madness in the Tales of Poe and Hawthorne Essay

With madness and confusion dominating short stories such as some of the tales written by Edgar Allan Poe and Nathaniel Hawthorne, the psychological states of their main characters are of the utmost importance. The meanings of the stories depend on whether the characters are truly insane, suffering from a physical ailment or merely intensely angry and hungry for revenge. Poe’s tales â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† and â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† both explore themes of madness and premature burials. However, while Roderick Usher seems to be suffering not only from a physical illness but also from insanity which may have stem from a â€Å"history of mental disorder† (Poe, The Fall of the House of Usher), Montresor seems to have been under the grip of intense hatred that have been caused by his victim’s previous insult on his person. It may be argued that Montresor is demented like Usher, but his well-planned crime contradicts the supposition of an unhinged mind. Meanwhile, the psychological troubles of Hawthorne’s characters in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† and â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil† are apparently milder, but not subtler. People may regard Goodman Brown as a recluse and a snob and Minister Hooper as someone mourning over his or other people’s sins. Hawthorne explores isolation in both stories, highlighting the possible self-destruction that may result from intensely reclusive lives. Though the stories may vary and the level of mental disorder may differ, both Poe and Hawthorne present people with emotions that are overly sensitive and with mental faculties that are more distraught than most. Poe is fascinated by madness. His stories are sometimes even narrated by persons whose mental and emotional facilities are questionable. This results to a more interesting reading of each of the stories. The reader is left to wonder if he or she is able to extract the accurate account of the story or a deranged version of it. In â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† the narrator observes what goes on in his host, Roderick’s house. He â€Å"rejects evidence of the supernatural†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ He is predisposed to regard Roderick as mad and therefore to reject any explanation Roderick suggests† (Bailey 446). The narrator of the story depends on the accounts of his host, Roderick but he does not trust his friend’s sanity. This creates a tension that is experienced by both the narrator and the reader; this tension is the uncertainty of what is unfolding because it is through the guidance of such an unreliable source like an apparently mad Roderick. Montresor of â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† may not have the gaunt and unhealthy look of Roderick Usher but what he has done to his enemy, Fortunato, is exceedingly cruel. The deed may have seemed perfectly planned and efficient but someone who can avenge an insult received by murder must be somehow unhinged. The criminal’s mind is exaggerated as is evident in his narration: â€Å"THE thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could, but when he ventured upon insult I vowed revenge† (Poe, The Cask of Amontillado). My heart grew sick; it was the dampness of the catacombs that made it so. I hastened to make an end of my labour. I forced the last stone into its position; I plastered it up. Against the new masonry I re-erected the old rampart of bones. For the half of a century no mortal has disturbed them. In pace requiescat. (Poe, The Cask of Amontillado) Though Montresor displays some strong emotion over what he has done to Fortunato, he continues with the crime methodically. Moreover, this contradiction, along with uttering â€Å"Rest in Peace† to his victim seems to suggest that Montresor is indeed insane. In the two short stories, Poe illustrates insanity that has been passed through generations and then insanity that has been triggered simply by an insult. Nathaniel Hawthorne shows some concern about the fate of souls in his two stories â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil† and â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†. While Poe illustrates madness that has resulted from being either inherently insane or predisposed to mental illness, Hawthorne explores zealous religiosity that can result to madness. Minister Hooper’s strong sense of religiousness has driven him to an extreme means of discerning the pious from the hypocrite. â€Å"Why do you tremble at me alone? †¦ Tremble also at each other! Have men avoided me, and women shown no pity, and children screamed and fled, only for my black veil? † (Hawthorne, The Minister’s Black Veil) The man has decided to put a black veil on his face. Not even his fiancee has been able to persuade him to take off the veil which in turn has given him a continuously mourning persona. Though he is mentally capable to continue his duties as minister, he does them with a somber aura which the veil produces for him. The insistence on constantly wearing the black veil displays obsessive behavior related to his faith despite the fact that he has not actually stated what his real reason for wearing the veil is. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†, Hawthorne again tackles the effects of the perception of sin. Here, the main character is oppressed by what he thinks is the real knowledge of other people’s sins. What he is not aware of is that the Devil, which he has consorted with in the woods, has made him believe that every single person in his community is involved in atrocious deeds. â€Å"†¦elders of the church have whispered wanton words to the young maids of their households; how many a woman, eager for widows’ weeds, has given her husband a drink at bedtime and let him sleep his last sleep in her bosom; how beardless youths have made haste to inherit their fathers’ wealth; and how fair damsels†¦ have dug little graves in the garden, and bidden me, the sole guest to an infant’s funeral† (Hawthorne). Having believed the Devil’s lies, Goodman Brown is continually suspicious of his neighbors’ intentions. He even believes their good deeds to be merely pretentious displays of piety. Because of this behavior, Goodman Brown isolates himself from the rest of the community and dies a lonely death. Hawthorne explores the themes of isolation and zealous religiousness in his two short stories, expressing the dangers of the two themes. Both Poe and Hawthorne have effectively expressed the psychological terrain that their main characters are in. Through using a narrator that is either the character with the questionable mental state or one that distrusts that character, the stories become more mysterious and subject to individual interpretation while the intensity of emotions coming from the main characters are able to shine through. The two authors explore mental instability in different forms; Poe’s stories are about inherent, maybe even genetic tendencies to lose one’s mind while Hawthorne’s two tales are about isolation that has resulted from obsessive spirituality.

Are Musicians Born or Made?

For nearly 2,000 years philosophers have wondered whether artists are born or made. In the case of musicians, the existence of thousands of music schools would seem to argue that musicians can be made, like engineers. Arguing against the importance of all that activity are the curious exceptions: famous musicians who cannot even read music. The latter include the most famous male pop singer of the 20th century and one of that century’s most famous orchestral conductors.The earliest important discussion of this question presents the problem well, found in a treatise, â€Å"On the Sublime,† is by a 1st century AD writer named Longinus. Nothing else can be documented about the man, but this treatise was well-known through the Renaissance and deeply influenced such writers as Dryden and Pope. Longinus begins by emphasizing the importance of learning. First of all, we must raise the question whether there is such a thing as an art [craft] of the sublime or lofty. Some hold t hat those are entirely in error who would bring such matters under the precepts of art. A lofty tone, says one, is innate, and does not come by teaching; nature is the only art that can compass it.Works of nature are, they think, made worse and altogether feebler when wizened by the rules of art. But I maintain that this will be found to be otherwise if it be observed that, while nature as a rule is free and independent in matters of passion and elevation, yet is she wont not to act at random and utterly without system†¦. Moreover, the expression of the sublime is more exposed to danger when it goes its own way without the guidance of knowledge, — when it is suffered to be unstable and unballasted, — when it is left at the mercy of mere momentum and ignorant audacity. It is true that it often needs the spur, but it is also true that it often needs the curb.1However, in another place, when he is thinking of the great gifts of the orator, Demosthenes, he wonders if such a great performer can be the result of learning. There are some, he seems to conclude, whose success can be explained only by a God-given ability. But Demosthenes draws — as from a store — excellences allied to the highest sublimity and perfected to the utmost, the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness, speed (where it is legitimate), and that power and vehemence of his which forbid approach.Having, I say, absorbed bodily within himself these mighty gifts which we may deem heaven-sent (for it would not be right to term them human), he thus with the noble qualities which are his own routs all comers even where the qualities he does not possess are concerned, and overpowers with thunder and with lightening the orators of every age. One could sooner face with unflinching eyes a descending thunderbolt than meet with steady gaze his bursts of passion in their swift succession.In the end Longinus retreats from having to make a choice between a st udied craft, which he calls â€Å"art,† and that talent which is a gift of nature. The highest achievement, he reasons, requires both. Since freedom from failings is for the most part the successful result of art, and excellence (though it may be unevenly sustained) the result of sublimity, the employment of art is in every way a fitting aid to nature; for it is the conjunction of the two which tends to ensure perfection.When the Church defeated Rome and began its process of reinventing, so to speak, the Roman citizen, it began by attempting to eliminate as much of the pagan world as possible, in the process burning the books of Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, etc. The church also attempted to remove emotion from the life of the Christian and as a subordinate part of that idea they warned the Christian about being enthusiastic about art.The rationale of the Church was: God created the artist, therefore you should love God and not the artist, much less the art object. Because of thi s position, during the long Church dominated period we call the â€Å"Dark Ages,† books which discuss art and the artist are rare. With the Renaissance, however, this subject is widely discussed, beginning with the important 16th century treatise, the Dodecachordon of 1547, by Heinrich Glarean. Glarean (1488 – 1563) of  Switzerland was a man of many talents as is testified to in numerous letters by Erasmus, who gives the impression that he was unusually proficient in all the Liberal Arts. In letters of recommendation, Erasmus calls Glarean a mathematician, meaning four branches of the Liberal Arts.It was from this perspective that Glarean was interested in music3 and our guess is that he probably did not think of himself as a performing musician, although on one occasion he so impressed Maximilian I in his singing of a poem that he was made poet laureate. Such a widely talented man is never universally popular and in the fictitious, satirical â€Å"Letters of Obscur e Men,† of 1515, by Crotus Rubeanus and Ulrich von Hutten, Glarean is described as, very headstrong man†¦. A terrible man, a choleric, for ever threatening fights — and he must be possessed of a devil.Glarean first clearly frames the question: who should receive the higher praise, the composer who has his gift through birth or the man who has studied counterpoint and who composes multi-part music upon the original melody?As we were hastening to the end of this very toilsome book, this not entirely inconsequential thought came to our mind about a matter which I say has been considered in doubt a long time now among men of our times, that is, which is more deserving of praise, the invention of a theme or the addition of several voices; namely, so that the uninitiated may also understand, whether it is of more value if one can invent a natural tenor, which affects all minds, which takes hold of a man’s heart, in short, which so clings to our memory that it ofte n steals upon us without our even thinking, and into which we break as if awakened from sleep, as we commonly see concerning many tenors; or if one adds three or more voices to the tenor invented in the aforementioned way, which voices, so to speak, embellish it with imitations, canons, changes of modus, tempus, and prolatio†¦.Having presented the question, Glarean’s own view seems to be that talent comes with birth, not study. It is interesting that he mentions the factor we have pointed out at the beginning, the success of untrained artists. He concludes by presenting the subordinate questions which he implies are necessary to answering the main question. Here is an example of this matter, so that one may comprehend so much the better what we say. Whoever first  invented the tenor Te Deum laudamus or any other as Pange lingua, may he not be preferred in talent to one who afterwards composed a complete Mass according to it? First, indeed, to say as a preface, we canno t deny that this happens to each through the power of his talent, and through a certain natural and native capacity rather than through art.The reason for this seems to be that very frequently those who are untrained in music are also surprisingly proficient in inventing tenors in our vernacular, whether Celtic or German, and further, that many who are proficient in adding voices likewise have learned music badly, to say nothing of other disciplines. Therefore, it is clear that neither talent is really possible for a man unless he is born to it, and, as it is commonly said, unless he received it from his mother.This is likewise true of painters, also of sculptors, and preachers†¦, in short, of all works dedicated to Minerva†¦. But indeed, if as Aristotle asserts, a man is truly deserving of praise who discovers the principles of any discipline, for it is very easy to add the rest (he says), I do not see why the first artist, the simple creator of a simple melody (now calle d a tenor) ought to be inferior to one who does not invent as easily as he adds to what has already been invented. Indeed, we see in the various disciplines that the first inventors always have merited the most praise. Thus Hippocrates is considered superior to Galen, even though Galen surpassed him with a thousand books†¦. Let everyone direct his attention to the following points as the most worthy of our consideration, namely, which of the two is older, which is more useful, and, finally, which yields to the other.In a letter sent to his publisher, Giraldi Cinthio,6 he indicates that he wrote his treatise, Discorso intorno al comporre dei romanzi of 1549, to refute attacks on Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, which he considered a great heroic poem. While his treatise is thus about the 16th century heroic poem in general, which he calls the Romance, Giraldi is equally concerned with establishing poetry as an art. In so doing, he presents one of the most important treatises on Beauty to be found in the 16th century.7 He begins by stating the all men have the genetic materials necessary to fine writing. But, he follows this by writing that â€Å"Nature produces the poets, but art makes the orators,†8 His point apparently is in attempting to make a  distinction between genius and (learned) skill. By â€Å"elocution,† Giraldi means the manner of expressing with fitting words the thought which the poet has in mind. Here he presents a unique and curious analogy.Since elocution has the same place in composition as the skin does in the human body, the poet ought to put his effort on this part, under which stand all the others, as nature does on the skin of the body. Just as nature, a judicious creatress (by virtue of the intelligence which rules her) of that which she produces, took great care to make the skin soft, pliable, and delicate, and to give it the grace of proper colors so that it appears pleasing to our eyes and makes delightful all t hat is under it, so the poet should put much talent and study on everything pertaining to words. Since they clothe our ideas and carry them from the intellect to the eyes, they ought to be adorned with all the beauty that the industry of the writer can give them.Although in this, no less than in other particulars, one ought to shun such superfluous diligence, lest what one would make good becomes bad, and lest excessive desire to embellish results in fastidiousness. Negligence neatly practiced is sometimes better than too much diligence.9This last sentence requires a note of explanation. For the Italian Renaissance (upper class) man, one of the personal characteristics held to be important was that he never exhibit effort. â€Å"Studied negligence† was the goal. This can be easily understood in the example of chess playing, where it was held that the gentleman could play but that he should not appear to be very good, for if he were good it implied study, practice and work, al l of which were not appropriate to the gentleman. Giraldi contends that epic poetry must be in rhyme. This is only fitting for heroic matter and â€Å"it carries in itself the sweetness of sound and gravity with measure and with the other qualities that belong to the sublime.†10 Later he adds that words must not only convey thoughts, but in themselves, â€Å"pleasurable beauty.† It is interesting that he warns the poet to remember that his goal is to find words for the thoughts, and not thoughts for the words. He pauses to comment on the ancient question of the relationship of learned Art and genius which is a gift of Nature. Here concludes that both are necessary. Of these two, however, the one so needs the other that each is of little value alone. Indeed, art without nature produces such impoverished verses  that they seem to have suffered for ten years from the hectic fever. Nature without art makes them like fat peasants who are of good color and health but witha l have no gentility.Therefore, he concludes, that poet who has as his guide both Nature and Art cannot help but succeed. His definition of Art which follows consequently focuses on both Beauty and Nature. By art I mean here not the intricacies and the entanglements of which I spoke above, which with metaphors, enigmas, and monstrosities would turn authors into alchemists; which precepts can make it appear that a man has seen and read much, but are not likely to teach; but that which gives us light, not shadow; makes our way pleasant, not painful; easy, not intricate; level, not steep; that which leads us not through briars but through flowering meadows; that which teaches us without so much tortuousness and such monstrosities of words and images. Like arranged flowers, after we have chosen them from the green fields of poesy, our compositions ought to be set in order with marvelous beauty.Marco Girolamo Vida was born in Cremona some time before the beginning of the 16th century, at which time his first poems appear, and died in 1566. His poem on chess (Scacchiae Ludus) brought him to the attention of Leo X. After the death of Leo X, Vida remained in the papal court of Clement VII, who made him Bishop of Alba in 1532. Holding this office, Vida participated in the council of Trent. In his treatise on poetry, De Arte Poetica, of 1561, Vida has observed that there are some who fervently desire to be poets, yet, in spite of all, are not successful. They, apparently, have the training, but not the gift. These men, he recommends, might find a suitable career as lawyers! How oft the youth, who wants the sacred fire,Fondly mistakes for genius his desire, Courts the coy Muses, though rejected still, Nor Nature seconds his misguided will! He strives, he toils with unavailing care, Nor Heaven relents, nor Phoebus hears his prayer. He with success, perhaps, may plead a cause, Shine at the bar, and flourish by the laws.One of the important Italian Renaissance writers, Pietr o Aretino (1492 – 1556), was much concerned with respect to the character of the artist. He also considered the question of the nature of Art and the artist, he concluded that the essential gift is one of genetics and not instruction. The truth is that art is an innate gift for considering the excellencies of nature that comes to us when we are babes in swaddling clothes. That which is learned later may be called art, but it is not legitimate, whereas you could not call that art bastard which the spider uses in weaving his web.We might note that to another correspondent he states that neither the gift nor the skill is of any importance without heart.To GiorgioVasari (1511 – 1574) we are indebted for his revised Lives of 1568, which provides important biographical information regarding 16th century artists. Vasari summarizes his views on our subject of whether the artist is born or learned by declaring, Very great is the obligation that is owed to Heaven and to Nature b y those who bring their works to birth without effort and with a certain grace which others cannot give to their creations either by study or by imitation.With the Baroque Period we begin to find German commentary which is related to our question, that is are musicians the product of training or Nature? One philosopher that we appreciate was Johann David Heinichen (1683 – 1729), a composer in Dresden. In his mind, there was a natural connection between the learned rules of music and the talent which comes from Nature, for he believed the important rules were all drawn from Nature herself.All arts and sciences have rules and must be learned through rules, if we do not wish to remain simple naturalists, ie., half-ignorant. But we must not err excessively on the side of rules; furthermore, we should not accept so crudely the equivocal word: Rule, as if we would serve as high sounding rule makers, prescribing laws even to Nature, according to which she must limit herself to aucto ritate nostra. No! All of our useful rules must be derived from Nature; and we must investigate on all levels the will, preference, and character of this mistress and learn from her cum submissione.Heinichen conceded the importance of that which is learned about music, believing that the essential abilities needed for successful composition include natural aptitude and diligence, as well, of course, as knowledge of the basic conceptual information on writing music. However, as he quotes Andreas Werkmeister, rules alone do not suffice.18 If one has no musical aptitude 1,000 rules could be illustrated with 10,000 examples and still the purpose would not be achieved.We have seen above Heinichen’s contention that all useful rules must be derived from Nature. But he seems hesitant to take on the burden of discussing the full dimension of Nature’s contribution. For one reason, while he finds Nature’s gifts unquestionably important, he finds that these gifts vary from composer to composer. One can as little describe the differences in musical talent as one can describe the differences between all ingenuities. Generally, however, one can say that the good talents of composers differ only in degree. For Nature gives to one an animated, clear, burning spirit, but to another a tempered, modest, or even affective nature. The latter is better suited to to the devout church style, the former, however, more to the theatrical†¦.Another very important German writer took a similar position. Johann Mattheson not only found that the gifts of Nature varied from man to man, but that sometimes Nature left her gifts incomplete! One sometimes encounters fine minds without true desire and love for it; thus one encounters nothing more seldom than the required diligence and necessary, untiring industry, joined together with these two things, natural ability and real desire: because commonly not a little laziness and idleness, lasciviousness, comfortableness, and the like, tend to go side by side with innate gifts and inclinations. A so-called natural disposition without ambition or love is like a buried treasure†¦. Desire and diligence without natural ability is really the worst of all†¦.This partiality which Nature demonstrates in passing out her talents led Mattheson, in another place, to comment on the treatment of students.Natural stupidity or innate simplicity is among the failures of the intellect which no one can rightfully punish, though it can be deplored or at best ridiculed. Desiring to make youngsters intelligent with thrashing is not only futile, but godless. Many examples verify that beatings make heads ten times more dumb than they were previously. This is and remains abysmally characteristic of education in almost every guild and apprenticeship.The great German composer, Georg Telemann (1681-1767), found that of the poets he worked with, some were talented but lacked the learning to successfully complete their ass ignment. Just as not everyone is born a poet, so every poet cannot write texts adaptable to music, and especially sacred music. It would be desirable for experts to explore this question.Another German writer of the Baroque, Johann Birnbaum, placed more importance on the learned facet of the artist. Indeed, his was a rather unique opinion that one of the fundamental roles of the artist was to perfect and shape Nature into its most ideal state. If art imitates Nature, then indisputably the natural element must everywhere shine through the works of art. Accordingly it is impossible that art should take away the natural element from those things in which it imitates Nature — including music. If art aids Nature, then its aim is only to preserve it, and to improve its condition; certainly not to destroy it.Many things are delivered to us by Nature in the most misshapen states, which, however, acquire the most beautiful appearance when they have been formed by art. Thus art lends N ature a beauty it lacks, and increases the beauty it possesses. Now, the greater the art is — that is, the more industriously and painstakingly it works at the improvement of Nature — the more brilliantly shines the beauty thus brought into being.The opposite view was taken by the great French philosopher, Marin Mersenne (1588-1648). He studied mathematics, physics, the classics and metaphysics at the Jesuit College of Le Mans. After becoming a Jesuit priest, and a member of the Minorite friars, Mersenne began teaching Hebrew, philosophy and theology at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1619. His residence became a  required stopping place for every intellectual visiting Paris, which, together with his correspondence with persons throughout Europe, including Galilei, Huygens and Descartes, made him a virtual one-man academy. His studies and experimentation in music resulted in his Harmonie universelle (1636), a work of encyclopedia proportion organized in five treatises.It wa s the conclusion by Mersenne that composers are born and not made through â€Å"Art.† Whatever rules we could give for composing fine and beautiful melodies on all kinds of subjects and texts, it appears that they cannot bring this to pass until we are induced by the favorable genius and natural inclination of those who write excellent ones without having learned or established any other rules than those which their imagination furnishes†¦. I shall be of the opinion of those who say that the genius of music is like that of the poet, the painter, the orator, and of several other craftsmen, to whom nature, or rather the Master of Nature, has dispensed certain gifts to which art cannot attain.He was also of the opinion that to some degree the beautiful singer is born and not made. This should be ascribed to the order of Divine Providence, which makes use of all kinds of conditions, as it does of as many voices, to compose the great concert of this universe, whose beauties a nd charms we will never understand except in Heaven.Franà §ois Marie Arouet (1694-1778), known as Voltaire,27 was the son of a successful attorney and a lively and intelligent woman who hosted a minor salon in Paris. His father advised him, â€Å"Literature is the profession of the man who wishes to be useless to society and a burden to his relatives, and to die of hunger.† The son responded by becoming one of the most prolific writers of the Baroque, supporting his family and dying wealthy.Voltaire arrived in Paris in 1715 as France was in transition from the era of Louis XIV to the regency for the young Louis XV. His brilliant wit, and sharp tongue, soon brought him to the attention of high society and earned him several visits to the Bastille. One comment remembered from this time followed an announcement that the regent, for reasons of the economy, had sold half the horses of the royal stables. Voltaire suggested it might have been better if he dismissed half the asses a t court!In one place Voltaire  seems to take the position that learning must be everything in the artist, for the reason that Nature has rendered all men equal physically. Yet all nations†¦, even the Hottentots and Kaffirs, pronounce the vowels and consonants as we do, because the larynx in them is essentially the same as in us — just as the throat of the rudest boor is made like that of the finest opera-singer, the difference, which makes of one a rough, discordant, insupportable bass, and of the other a voice sweeter than the nightingale’s, being imperceptible to the most acute anatomist; or, as the brain of a fool is for all the world like the brain of a great genius.In another place, however, he takes the position that those with real individual genius in the arts possessed something beyond learning or emulation. It must be confessed that in the arts having genius as their basis, everything is the product of instinct.By â€Å"instinct† here, Voltaire apparently meant that the true genius is born and not made. Here he seems to suggest that â€Å"learning† is replaced by â€Å"taste.† We use the word â€Å"genius† indifferently in speaking of†¦an artist, or a musician†¦. Now an artist, however perfect he may be in his profession, if he have no invention, if he be not original, is not considered a genius. He is only inspired by the artists his predecessors, even when he surpasses them†¦.Poussin, who was a great painter before he had seen any good pictures, had a genius for painting. Lully, who never heard any good musician in France, had a genius for music†¦. Genius, conducted by taste, will never commit a gross fault†¦. Genius, without taste, will often commit enormous errors; and, what is worse, it will not be sensible of them.30In another place, he adds,The gift of nature is an imagination inventive in the arts — in the disposition of a picture, in the structure of a poem. It cannot exist without memory, but it uses memory as an instrument with which it produces all its performances.The primary characteristic of this â€Å"gift of nature,† that the artist is born with, Voltaire finds to be the quality of his imagination. Active imagination, which constitutes men poets, confers on them enthusiasm, according to the true meaning of the Greek word, that internal emotion which in reality agitates the mind and transforms the author into the personage whom he introduces as the speaker; for such is the true enthusiasm, which consists in emotion and imagery†¦. In general, the imaginations of painters when they are merely ingenious, contribute more to exhibit the learning in the artist than to increase the beauty of the art†¦. In all the arts, the most beautiful imagination is always the most natural.Two examples from English literature take the position that the successful artist is the product of both birth and art (learning). We have an interes ting poem in honor of Shakespeare by Ben Jonson, in which the poet observes that â€Å"though the matter of poets be Nature,† it is the art of the poet which must shape it. In a reflection on Shakespeare’s own labor, Jonson notes, For a good poet’s made, as well as born.And such wert thou.33A similar reflection is made by Robert Herrick (1591 – 1674). Man is composed here of a two-fold part; The first of Nature, and the next of Art: Art presupposes Nature†¦.34And now, it might be interesting to consider what some of the great composers have written on this subject. First, there are some isolated thoughts from the diary of Robert Schumann, which has been dated about 1833. It is the curse of talent that, although it labors more steadily and perseveringly than genius, it does not reach a goal; while genius, floating on the summit of the ideal, grazes from above, serenely smiling. †¦..It is not a good thing to have acquired too much facility in any occupation. †¦.. The youthful works of masters who have become great, are looked upon with very different eyes than are the works of composers who promised as much, but did not keep their word. †¦.. Dare talent permit itself to take the same liberties as genius? †¦.. Talent labors, genius creates. †¦.. Few strikingly original works of genius have become popular.These comments on talent as opposed to genius by Schumann remind us of one of Wagner’s essays where he quotes Schopenhauer, Talent hits a mark we all can see, but cannot lightly reach; whilst Genius attains a goal we others do not even see.35Our original question was, â€Å"Are musicians born or made?† When you look at the sketch books of Beethoven, it is perfectly obvious that even so great a composer as he had to go to great efforts to â€Å"make† his compositions. In looking at these sketches one sometimes feels that if he had a gift, it was the gift of knowing what to reject. His b irth gift was Taste, not counterpoint. Mozart is another matter. As Schumann pointed out one time, the only way you can be a Mozart is to be born a Mozart.36 But, if you have to be born a Mozart, then what is going on in all those thousands of music schools around the world? It is an interesting question.It is even a more interesting question from the following perspective. You go to hear, let’s say, a piano recital. You are moved, you are inspired, and you say, â€Å"That was really musical.† What you are referring to in that moment is not taught in those music schools. What then is being taught in all those music schools? In our view most of this activity is centered in two areas: [1] A great amount of time is spent by music schools in the teaching of grammar. In no other field and in none of the other arts is such a disproportionate amount of time spent on grammar as opposed to meaning and purpose.Can one imagine, for example, Marlon Brando, Jack Nicholson, Marilyn Monroe and Jane Fonda at the Lee Strasberg Actors Studio in New York sitting around discussing grammar? In what music school is there even one comprehensive course in aesthetics? In what music school is there discussion on what music meant to Beethoven? Who will talk about music and character development? Who tells students why classical music is important and popular music is not? Who explains to students the difference between inspired  music and educational music? Who takes on the responsibility for explaining to students that music education is about commerce, but not art? [2] The other great field of activity in music schools is the instruction of students on how to become players of instruments, including the vocal instrument.But what studio teacher, as a part of the necessary technique, explains to the student how to move the emotions of the listener? In how many studios is the word â€Å"listener† even mentioned? What studio teacher brings up the subject of earning a living? One day students will ask that question and the house of cards will collapse. To conclude, surely everyone understands that one cannot learn, in any music school anywhere, to become a Mozart. That is not only a gift of God, but a gift God rarely dispenses. But there are other gifts, some of which are genetic, gifts of God to everyman. First and foremost among these is the ability to understand music as a listener without going to those music schools. And then there are the gifts which come from participation in music.Surely anyone whose means of making a living includes the performance of music, whether professional, community or school, must feel a recipient of a gift of the gods. You could be a dentist! How much would they have to pay you to stand and look into other people’s mouths all day? And finally there are those people who may not have the opportunity to perform, but understand the importance of music to society and give of themselves to make it happen. It was of them that Mendelssohn once wrote, The smallest real service to art†¦seems a blessing sent by God.

Application letter

Being given to understand that there is a vacancy of above mentioned post in your reputed organization I would like to apply my candidature for the same. I request your good self to give me an opportunity to prove my capability in your esteemed organization. I assure you that I shall give my best in getting the jobs accomplished. My CV is enclosed herewith for your kind perusal. Expecting a favourable response from your end. Thanking You, Yours faithfully, Tamanna Patel To, Respected Sir/Madam, Subject: Job Application request for the position of â€Å"Business management faculty I am an aspirant Management Professional, done MBA in Marketing Management from ITM [Institute for Technology Management] Deemed university, Navi Mumbai with first class. I completed my graduation in B. E (Electronics communication Engineering) with first class from V. N. S. G. U. Surat. I was associated for two Major Marketing project at Pantaloon Retail India Ltd, Mumbai I would take it as a privilege, if I get a chance to associate myself with your Esteemed Organisation to give better pace to my career. As I firmly believe that this would give me Immense Exposure and a correct platform to get a glimpse of corporate world and would help me improve my personal skills and competencies. I sincerely wish to add value to the organisation with full dedication, my creativity and passion to think differently. I would be highly obliged if you consider my application and give me a chance for the same. Preferred location:-Surat, Mumbai, Ahmedabad Please refer to the attached Resume. Awaiting for your reply in anticipation. Thank you Yours truly, Alok Patel MBA (Marketing), B. E (E. C. ) [emailprotected] co. in Ph: (+91)- Mobile Number To, Sr. Manager, Commercial R/Sir, Your organization is one such organization, which operates, in a professional, dynamic and vibrant environment. Moreover I am absolutely sure that there would be extremely challenging and growth oriented career opportunities existing in your organization. All these therefore positively motivated me to explore an appropriate opening with your good self. On my part I can assure you that with my qualifications and experience accompanied with the knowledge and skill acquired during my job period, I would be able to make a meaningful and significant contribution to your organization. I am enclosing my Curriculum Vitae for your kind perusal and looking forward to an opportunity to present my skills and capabilities in person. Regards with thanks. ( Prateek Joshi ) Jamnagar, Gujarat. 9978499784 Personal Manager HRD Respected Sir Please accept this letter and other documentation as application for the position of Manager/ Sr. Engineer-Mechanical. I am quite excited about the possibilities at your esteemed organization. I hope that you will find my background to be of enough interest to interview me further regarding this position. I enclose my CV outlining my experience to date and key skill areas, which I believe are relevant to this position. I would welcome the opportunity to discuss my application with you and look forward to hear from you. Yours sincerely, Sawan Jasoliya Mr. Kimani wa Kimani P. o Box 616165225 Nairobi 00100 Tel: 070000000 kimani. [emailprotected] com Date The Human Resource Manager XYZA Company Ltd. P. o Box 616165225 Nairobi 00100 Tel: 070000000 Dear Sir/ Madam, I am writing to apply for the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (position) advertised in the (Source). As requested, I am enclosing a completed job application, my certification, my resume and three references. The opportunity presented in this listing is very interesting, and I believe that my strong technical experience and education will make me a very competitive candidate for this position. The key strengths that I possess for success in this position include:  · I have successfully  · I strive for continued excellence  · I provide exceptional contributions to customer service for all customers With a (An academic qualification like a Bachelor’s or a Diploma), I have a full understanding of the (State the purpose of the job here) excelling at new (State job area) as needed. Please see my resume for additional information on my experience. I can be reached anytime via email at kimani. [emailprotected] com or my cell phone, 07000000. Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to speaking with you about this employment opportunity. Sincerely, Full Name Date The Manager Life Live Insurance Company Uhuru Park Box 893276 – 002726 Nairobi Dear Sir/Madam I am writing to enquire whether you have any positions available within your organization. My name is John Mtu. I have completed a (State the highest academic qualification) and have enrolled to do further study at (State the next best qualification)in the area of (State the area of specialization). I am a caring and genuine individual. I am very eager to find employment within the (State the industry) and believe I would be a valuable asset to your organization. I have attached my resume for your perusal. I can be contacted at anytime on 070000000. I thank you for taking time to read my application. Yours truly, John Mtu

Ancient Middle East - Lesson 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Ancient Middle East - Lesson 1 - Essay Example B. repetition of words, phrases, or sentences that have the same grammatical structure or that compare or contrast ideas C. intentional repeating of a sound, word, phrase, line, or idea in order to create a particular literary effect D. a comparison of two things to show that they are alike in certain respects E. a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent or dead person, a deity, an abstract quality, or something nonhuman as if it were present and capable of responding Question 2 What characteristic of an epic hero does Gilgamesh display when he tells of his plans for the river plant? weakness, since he wants it only for his own use ignorance, since he does not realize it is poisonous kindness, since he intends to give it to the elderly confusion, since he knows it cannot endure Question 3 One of the themes of the Epic of Gilgamesh is the search for immortality, which involves Gilgamesh's traveling to the underworld. Which phrase best describes the Sumerian underworld that Gilgamesh enters as part of his search? a land of dust and darkness a land of hard work and pain a land of abundance and beauty a land of winged creatures and kings Question 4 Which of the following is evidence of the influence of Mesopotamian culture in the Epic of Gilgamesh? Enkidu and Gilgamesh become friends. Gilgamesh encounters many gods in his journey. Gilgamesh is sometimes boastful. Utnapishtim is immortal. ... does not trust her beloved to return. prefers to spend time away from her beloved. worries more about her beloved's happiness than her own.   Ã‚  Question 8    In Most Beautiful Youth Who Ever Happened, the words "love of you goes round and round" reveal that the speaker wishes that her love would stop. worries that her love is hopeless. feels intense, powerful love. sees love as a silly game.   Ã‚  Question 9    The epithet, "O Sole God beside whom there is none!" from The Great Hymn to the Aten, emphasizes Aten's great beauty. supreme power. intense loneliness. extreme isolation.   Ã‚  Question 10    The epithet from The Great Hymn to the Aten, "You rouse them for your son who came from your body, / The King who lives by Maat," implies that worshipers of Aten will rise from the dead. will be like a son to Maat. should fight invaders. should obey the pharaoh.   Ã‚  Question 11    The epithet from The Great Hymn to the Aten, "Lord of all who toils for them," character izes Aten as kind and loving toward his people. caring only toward people who work for him. caring only toward people who work for others. harsh and demanding of his people.   Ã‚  Question 12    Which of these would NOT be appropriate to include in an original praise poem? an epithet: "Ocean, home to sea creatures" an apostrophe: "Little bird, carry my love to my beloved" compliments to the person or object that is the subject of the poem comments on how the subject of the poem has disappointed the speaker   Ã‚  Question 13    The story, In the Beginning, uses repetition to reinforce the important idea that God ended his work and rested on the seventh day. God thought that the things he had made were good. those who sinned against God would be punished. Adam

The European Union Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The European Union - Essay Example This was in the 1920s and the name of the organization was Patt-European Union. However, real integration in Europe was achieved through the European Economic Community (EEC). The vision of this organization was â€Å"broad enough to achieve real integration across a wide range of policy issues† (â€Å"The political landscape,† 209). The European Economic Community was the pioneer of today`s European Union. It was established by six western European nations; Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands France, Italy, and West Germany, (â€Å"The political landscape,† 209). A major step was taken towards the building of the nations in 1992, with the treaty of European Union also referred to as the Maastricht treaty, signed at an intergovernmental conference that was held in Dutch (â€Å"The political landscape,† 211). This treaty was ratified in 1993, and provided for the continued deepening of cooperation among member nations in different areas, and cooperation into three forms referred to as the pillar of the union. These are the European Community, the common foreign and security policy, and the cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs (â€Å"The political landscape,† 212). The European Union is an umbrella that stands over these three constituent pillar organizations. In 1990, the European Union removed all trade barriers allowing free movement of people. During these years, the European Union had an integrative development to have a single currency. This began when Maastricht treaty set a timetable at was set to achieve monetary union. The second step was the establishment of the European monetary institution that was to strengthen the coordination of the monetary policies of the member states. Nevertheless, Denmark rejected the idea of a single currency and feared that the adoption of the Euro would steer unacceptable erosion of the Danish political sovereignty (â€Å"The political landscape,† 212). Sweden took a go slow approach, hoping to join

A Scandal in Bohemia by Arthur Conan Doyle Essay - 1

A Scandal in Bohemia by Arthur Conan Doyle - Essay Example The narrative discourse is distinct from the story because the events are arranged in a chronological manner. Instead of arranging the information of the story in a manner that makes sense, the author switches the story between the characters or moves the reader through flashbacks and flash-forwards. Although narratives of all genres are ubiquitous in the day-to-day life, Doyle’s narrative does not leverage the aspects that separate narrative from expository discourse. In the narrative discourse, Doyle employs varied approaches that include the solution to the narrative. For example, the dialogue between Watson and Holmes provides a clear understanding of the story. For instance, â€Å"was there a secret marriage?† also reveals the way the Holmes condescends the views of women in the story. One of the approaches employed in the story is the conversational approach, which the author included in the fiction work as the key aspect of the narrative discourse. The second app roach on narrative discourse provides a new genre of literary texts that represent a certain meaning. Doyle also uses suspense in the mystery story that leaves the reader to keep thinking about what happens next in the story. The author creates suspense in the story through explaining the atmosphere of the narrative in order to enable the reader to understand what is around him or her or what the people around the reader are doing. Suspense is used in narratives in order to enable the reader to think or focus on the insight of the story.

An Argument Supporting a Thesis on the Effective Use of English Essay

An Argument Supporting a Thesis on the Effective Use of English - Essay Example Additionally, whenever a person wishes to travel to a place in the globe, they have to communicate throughout their journey. For instance, if a person does not understand the language at a place in the globe, he or she would communicate their concerns to those inhabitants through talking English. If we could imagine of a person who does snot confer the English language travelling to a distant land whose language they may not understand, they would find it extremely intricate to express their sentiments. Thus, it is a benefit to learn and comprehend the English language. Communicating in English with a foreigner would be an easy thing to do, since numerous people have an understanding of English. This explicates on the reason behind why most media publications are expressed in the English language. These publications include newspapers, magazines and broadcasts. If one gets a magazine or newspaper and are interested in reading it, he or she would pick it and start reading. If they do not understand the English written in the initial sentences, they would stop reading the newspaper. Another advantaged person with prior knowledge of English would read it comfortably. Tan has communicates in different English languages, something that she notes peculiar (Tan). She asserts, â€Å"It has become our language of intimacy, a different sort of English that relates to family talk, the language I grew up with.† Thus, the truth that her environment implicated on her English quality proves that backgrounds immensely contribute to incompetence in talking in effective and perfect English. In the case of immigrants from a distant country seeking, employment or residence in a neighbouring country, prior knowledge of the English language would aid them in interacting with workmates or neighbours. Since English appears to be the most commonly used language for instruction and communication in workplaces, it is pertinent and an added advantage if the immigrant understood how to communicate effectively in the language. Knowledge of English as an instruction language would minimize erring and people would interact effectually with their counterparts. Ability to organize themselves coherently in communication of their sentiments to their counterparts or fellow people, immigrants can be at a merit. For instance, Rodriquez had an immense challenge in speaking English and was disadvantaged when communicating with other English speakers. He asserts that they had to bend lower to hear what he was saying properly (Rodriques 154). This shows how important English language is for immigrants, since Rodriquez must have communicated in English to express his sentiments. Additionally, those immigrants who are in the process of seeking employment in chief industries or companies would have an advantage if are conversant with English speaking. Conversely, their counterparts who have no experience in communicating in English fluently would have a hard time procuring emp loyment. This means that English speakers are at an elevated advantage than those who are not competent in the English language. Because effectual communication is a pertinent activity when operating in the workplace, people who can communicate effectively in English always have an added advantage than their counterparts. In the case of Malcolm X, he felt that he was having difficulties even in writing a simple letter to Muhammad (Malcolm X). He was overly frustrated and could not articulate himself properly and effectively. However, his prison

Shakespeare Hamlet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Shakespeare Hamlet - Essay Example Through the characterization of Hamlet, Shakespeare is able to investigate and illustrate the nature of insanity in its various forms. In the play Hamlet, Shakespeare portrays the character of Hamlet in a way that supports both the idea that Hamlet is insane and that Hamlet is not mad. In so doing, the author explores the duality of the single human brain, whereby the person shows the due ability of being both mentally unstable and mentally stable all at the same time. This is displayed by Hamlet as being probably very divergent in nature and complex to comprehend in Shakespeare’s understanding of insanity. Readers view Hamlet as a man of reflection rather than a man of action. The notion that Hamlet is not insane is supported by the proposal that he only exhibits insanity so that he can say and behave in the manner he wants and get away with it. In the play by Shakespeare, Hamlet is able to rebuke the marriage of his mother and uncle without getting in trouble. He has for a long time snow had a sneaky suspicion that his uncle could have indeed killed his father to inherit throne and marry his mother. In fact, he calls Polonius a tedious fool and a fishmonger but he walks scot-free. By faking insanity, Hamlet is not only able to get away with whatever he utters, but he is also able to act in cruel manner towards Ophelia. Ophelia, his girlfriend is in fact convinced beyond doubt that Hamlet has gone crazy. Hamlet is scolded by Gertrude for upsetting his uncle but Hamlet is able to evade the situation by letting his insanity as he conducts an investigation on what could have actually happened to his father. However, Hamlets ability to think and speak in a lo gical way shows that he is not really insane as portrayed throughout the play. Hamlet is as rational as everyone else when he is around his friend Horatio. In various instances throughout the play, Hamlet shows his trust in Horatio. Moreover, Hamlet acts irrationally and speaks out his opinions about

Antibacterial Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Antibacterial - Essay Example Their benefit in the medical field and personal hygiene notwithstanding, antimicrobial exhibit certain side effects. Introduction Antibacterial are host of compounds or substances that inhibit or retard the growth of bacteria. They belong to a larger family of compounds known as antimicrobials among which are antifungal and antiviral compounds. Chemically, antibacterial can be isolated from living organisms, obtained by chemical modification of natural compounds or synthesized (Von Nussbaum, 2006). Aminoglycosides, such as streptomycin, are classes of antibacterials that are isolated from living systems. Compounds, such as sulfonamides, that have antibacterial property are obtained solely by chemical synthesis. Semi-synthetic modification of natural compounds also yield antibacterial compounds such as penicillin. The biological activity of antibacterials differs. Some function by killing the target bacteria as in bactericidal agents, while others slow down the growth or reproduction of the bacteria as in bacteriostatic agents (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Bactericidal agents are further grouped as bactericidal disinfectants, bactericidal antiseptic, and bactericidal antibiotics. Several factors, which include the host defense mechanism, the location of the infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial, affect the outcome of antibacterial therapy with antibacterial compound (Pankey and Sabeth, 2004). The concentration of the antibacterial also affects its biological activity of antibacterials, thus in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of the antibacterial agent being investigated. To ascertain the drug efficacy of an antibacterial, its antibacterial activity is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and results of other pharmacological parameters obtained during clinical studies. Mode of action of antibacterials The mode of action of antibacterial differs; indeed, this difference offers a criterion for classification of antibacterials as either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. Some bactericidal agents, such as penicillin, target the bacterial cell wall, while some, for example polymixins, disrupt cell membrane, and another group of bactericidal agents, for instance sulfonamides, interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Antibacterial agents that are bacteriostatic in action, such as tetracyclines, target protein synthesis and eventually slow down the growth or reproduction of the bacteria (Calderon and Sabundayo, 2007). Bactericidal agents have found use as disinfectants, antiseptics and antibiotics. For instance, chloroxylenol, a phenolic, is the active antibacterial ingredient in Dettol (Acenzi, 1996), a household disinfectant and antiseptic. Figure 1. Chemical structure of chloroxylenol Chloroxylenol functions by disrupting the cell membrane potential of bacteria. Potassium permanganate, KmnO4, is a strong oxidizing agent that has find application as an antibacterial agent. It is used as antiseptic and disinfectant for treating aquariums and swimming pools. Mere exposure of KmnO4 to sunlight yields oxygen through its decomposition. 2 KMnO4(s) > K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2(g) The oxygen oxidizes the cell membrane of the bacteria resulting in the loss of structure and ultimately, cell lysis and death of the bacteria.

The ethics of selling guns Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The ethics of selling guns - Essay Example rt into a particular country Even though it is not constitutional, mostly assault weapons, are banned for manufacture and import into the country, and all guns are barred for convicted criminals. Nonetheless, it is lawful to sell the parts required to assemble these weapons. Besides, there is no system put in place to track or register gun parts (except the receiver), and so several gun parts can be sold to criminals who can then assemble the guns for their criminal use. The question then arises, is it the ethical responsibility of gun manufacturers, dealers, and companies to close up gaps and offer tight regulations who they sell gun parts to and what type of parts they sell without infringing constitutional right and a basic freedom given to all citizens? Though it may not be constitutional to bar the production and importation of assault weapons, it is not ethical for gun manufacturers and companies to evade the law and undermine the government by making assault weapons easily acc essible, and making any gun available to a convicted criminal. The common argument that â€Å"Guns don’t kill, people do† does not apply to the utilitarian test. The correct principle is how much (dis)utility arises from selling the guns, irrespective of who shoots them. A gun manufacturer has to consider the negative utility created by those who use its guns. Nonetheless, the equally general argument that â€Å"If I don’t do it, someone else will† applies for the utilitarian test. If other producers would pick up the limp as a result of one’s decision not to sell assault weapons, leading to the similar total sales, then there is no obvious utilitarian argument for selling or against selling the firearms. On the contrary, the positive utility can be created (recreation, hunting, and self-defense) by selling guns that are not dangerous has less negative expected utility. As far as â€Å"categorical imperative† is concerned, Freeman argues that any ethical decision must be assessed

Business ethics Essay Example for Free

Business ethics Essay There is no singular definition of knowledge, but for the purpose of this paper; knowledge will be defined as the familiarity with a situation or fact. Ethics, on the other hand, is a set of moral principles that govern a person’s behavior. Simplifying the knowledge issue would be to state that: The familiarity of something (whether a fact or situation) entails compliance with ethical or moral obligations. In disagreement with the previous claim, I believe that the possession of knowledge does carry an ethical responsibility. In a paper written by Steven Pinker, otherwise known as â€Å"The Moral Instinct†, he suggests that morality has a metaphorical switch. Stated as the â€Å"moralization switch†, Steven Pinker suggests, â€Å"Moralization is a psychological state that can be turned on and off like a switch, and when it is on, a distinctive mind-set commandeers our thinking. † Much like light switches, moralization switches may be turned on and off. When the moralization switch is turned off, the reasoning for doing something (moral or amoral) changes, rather than being a matter of virtue, it becomes a matter of practicality or personal reasons. Different people may have their moralization switches turned on or off in the same scenario. An example of this is â€Å"loving thy neighbor†. One may express his love for his neighbor because it is in accordance to the Ten Commandments, which he/she truly believes in; while another person may also express love toward his neighbor purely because there is something to gain from it. Steven Pinker, in his paper, states that morality is under assault. This could be in line with a conclusion formulated by David Couzens Hoy, a renowned professor of philosophy, based on the works of Emmanuel Levina (a French philosopher) who believed that â€Å"responsibility precedes any objective searching after the truth†. David Couzens Hoy concluded that there has been an ethical turn. He now defines ethics as â€Å"obligations that present themselves as necessarily to be fulfilled but are neither forced on one or are enforceable†. Despite the fact that ethical obligations are optional, the general population comes to a consensus about moral concepts such as the difference between right and wrong. It was theorized by, anthropologist, Donald E. Brown, in his work â€Å"Human Universals† that things such as the concept of distinction between right and wrong have no exceptions in normal human beings. This, along with the concept of fairness, accounts for the decision of most people to maintain a certain ethical standard and responsibility. The defiance of the ethical code of conduct that is universally accepted would either be recognized by the doer as wrong (and would most likely be punished), or would be a result of a mental disorder (such as psychopathy or moral blindness). This is why a person convicted of murder is given less harsh punishments if known to have a psychological disorder, otherwise known as being mentally unfit. The fact that they have mental disorders means that they are exceptions to this rule of thumb. The moral blindness does not allow for a coherent view with the universal morality that the rest of the world follows. The reason why the world is in chaos is because showing ethical responsibility is a choice. Harvard Psychologist, Marc Hauser, argues that millions of years of natural selection have molded a universal moral grammar within our brains that enables us to make rapid decisions about ethical dilemmas. There is a universal perception of the difference between right and wrong, but the choice to do either right or wrong is situational. It takes something as simple as personal advancement or an impulse to do something immoral. This is why the possession of knowledge carries an ethical responsibility. A cliche goes â€Å"with knowledge comes power†, which is why knowledge requires ethical responsibility. The same kind of knowledge may be used for great good or bad, and the choice of what to do with it lies in the hands of the one that possesses the information. This shows the possible threat that knowledge has. It could be used to harm humans. The moralization switch could spell the difference between life and death in the hands of the possessor. Jon Stuart Mill’s Principle of Utilitarianism states the ethical theory that one should maximize the over happiness and satisfaction, and aim for the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Exemplifying ethical responsibility, according to this principle, would entail using the familiarity with facts or information for the betterment of the majority. It is possible, however, that personal advancement is genuine happiness, and this could instantaneously shroud one’s moral mentality. It is only the sense of morality that is universal, not being moral itself. Selfish acts, which are almost always immoral or amoral are means by which people could attain happiness for themselves. This could override the choices that one makes, despite the innate ability to tell between moral and immoral. An example of this is insider trading. In the world of finance, one can win big and lose big. Insider trading is a form of immoral acts that go against ethical responsibility by using knowledge for personal advancement, while simultaneously hurting others. The end, which is money, would justify the means (which is unfairly using information for the advancement of oneself and the decline of others). Knowledge on matters may have little effects, and global effects. They may severely affect others while greatly benefitting a select few, or cause the happiness of majority of society. The end, or effect, would be a result of one’s choice on what to do with the knowledge that he has. It is therefore crucial for people to be moral. The effect of the exploitation of knowledge is limitless and can work both ways, which is why one must be ethically responsible and just.

Sarbanes Oxley Act Of 2002 Accounting Essay

Sarbanes Oxley Act Of 2002 Accounting Essay The purpose of this report is to present the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, starting from the history of self-regulation and its regulatory bodies, presenting the governance scandals which triggered the Acts creation, emphasizing the requirements of Section 404 and concluding on recent crises. The history of self-regulation in the United States is structured in two parts: (1) Early Standards, including the Acts of 1933 and 1934, GAAS and GAAP, with short focus on peer review, and After seventy years of self-regulation many accounting frauds, governance scandals and bankruptcies shacked the U.S. market. Due to their relevance and impact on regulatory standards the cases of Enron and WorldCom were chosen to be discussed. After enacting the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the U.S. Congress started a new era, by choosing to enforce a new independent body (PCAOB) to monitor the auditing companies. In relation with SOX the followings were considered: (1) SOXs summary, with its objectives and main sections, (2) Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), with its mission and enforced authority. Next, the analysis focused on the section 404 of SOX 2002 because is the provision which caused the most violent discussions from executives part. Due to the section impact on companies financial statements the report includes a short presentation of its rules with a larger analysis of implementation costs and benefits. Still, even if the SOX and the SEC regulated the market in order to protect the investors and to avoid future corporate frauds, the financial crisis revealed new scandals, out of which in this report are mentioned: (1) Bernard Madoffs Ponzi scheme, and (2) Bank of America Corporations lack of disclosure related to Merrill Lynch merger. Taking into consideration these scandals, changes of regulations must be considered for the future and, maybe, reconsiderations of auditors role as management strategic advisors. HISTORY OF SELF REGULATION IN USA I.1. Early Standards In the United States, at the beginning of the 20th century, the regulations for accounting and auditing were the same as United Kingdom regulations due to the fact that the major American corporations were branches of Britain companies (Benston G., et al., 2006). Still, the market experienced a low level of regulation (or almost absent), the succeeding events (stock market crash in 1929 and depression from 1930) indicating a strong need for regulating and disclosing policies to be established by the federal government. Securities Act of 1933 and Securities Exchange Act of 1934. The historical foundation for regulations of financial disclosure by corporations is considered to be the moment when, immediately after the market crash from 1929, the U.S. Congress enacted two major laws, the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. For the first time in history, those two rules contained pragmatic provisions regarding corporate investors and financial disclosure: Companies publicly offering securities for investment dollars must tell the public the truth about their businesses, the securities they are selling, and the risks involved in investing. People who sell and trade securities brokers, dealers, and exchanges must treat investors fairly and honestly, putting investors interests first.  [1]   GAAS. Starting with 1939, the first generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS) were drafted and adopted by the American Institute of Accountants (currently AICPA), through its Auditing Standard Executive Committee (AudSEC) (currently Auditing Standards Board). Because GAAS refers to risks assessment and ways to mitigate them, three areas of provisions were defined (Benston G., et al., 2006): (1) general standards for determining the auditors personal traits; (2) fieldwork standards for setting the audit analysis, evaluation of internal controls and audit evidences; (3) reporting standards for assessing the disclosures of financial statements and the audit opinions, respectively the application of GAAS to GAAP. GAAP. Starting with 1936-1938, the SEC entrusted the Committee on Accounting Procedure (part of AICPA) to issue a private-sector accounting standards in order to set-up an accounting system requested by the market needs. The first generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) were developed in its initial form of Accounting Research Bulletins (ARB). Peer Review. In the early 1960s, the major consulting accounting companies started to form peer reviews for a better quality of accounting, auditing and attestation services performed by AICPA members  [2]  . This means that every CPA firm must be reviewed by another CPA firm. The latest company must independent from the reviewed company and must have qualified experience. The supervision of the peer review activities is assured by the Public Oversight Board (POB), an independent private sector body  [3]  , which, even if was created by SECPS members, is independent from the profession and the regulatory process. I.2. Regulatory Bodies Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The US Congress, through Securities Exchange Act of 1934, established SEC as an independent agency, having as main duty to define technical, trade, accounting, and other terms used in securities market, in the United States. The Commission is responsible for (1) interpreting federal securities laws; (2) issuing new rules and revising existing rules; (3) supervising the examination of securities players (brokers, investments advisers, other agencies); (4) monitoring private regulatory organizations in the securities area; and (5) complying U.S. securities rules with other American and foreign authorities  [4]  . Currently, the SEC is administrating the most important laws that standardize the securities industry, laws which are: (1) Securities Act of 1933, (2) Securities Exchange Act of 1934, (3) Trust Indenture Act of 1939, (4) Investment Company Act of 1940, (5) Investment Advisers Act of 1940, (6) Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002. The authoritative power of SEC implies laws enforcement in cases of fraud, insider trading, and any other infringements done by the individuals and companies on the securities area. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA). If all preceding associations (like the American Association of Public Accountants, the Institute of Public Accountants, the American Institute of Accountants) are taken into consideration, than it can be stated that AICPA dates from 1887  [5]  . Associating all the certified public accountants (CPAs) in the U.S., the AICPA is the main non-government authoritative body in developing auditing standards (including technical rules and ethical codes) and other regulating services for CPAs. Furthermore, it has the authority to monitor and to enforce the law in cases of non-compliance with the standards. Auditing Standards Board (ASB). Within AICPA, the ASB is assigned to be the committee in charge to actually issue the standards and the regulations for CPAs, for non-public company audits, next to the necessary guidelines and the interpretations of the laws. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB). Over time, the mission to regulate the private sector by clear defined financial accounting standards passed from AICPAs Committee on Accounting Procedure to the Accounting Principles Board. By the end of 1960s the market development triggered an increasing demand for accounting standards updated in the same rhythm as the economical growth. As a result, since 1973, the Financial Accounting Standards Board has been created as a private, non-profit institution, founded with the purpose to establish and improve standards of financial accounting and reporting for the guidance and education of the public, including issuers, auditors, and users of financial information.  [6]   CORPORATE GOVERNANCE: FAMOUS SCANDALS In 2002, Ribstein L. argues in the Journal of Corporation Law that the traditional approach of corporate governance in large corporation must be established by government regulation. This approach is based on assumption that the shareholders, in order to protect their ownership goals, lack of tools to control the management actions. On the other hand, acknowledging the shareholders weakness, the managers are predisposed to take advantage of the situation by acting on their own personal interests and power. Companies financial statements are the mean through which the managers can show their contribution to the corporate overall growth. If in this judgment is included the fact that corporate management usually has had compensation formulae strongly related with companies financial performance (such as options on companys shares), the management tendency to manipulate companies financial statements becomes obvious, or, in other words, the management is highly interested to manage earnings (Kaplan R., 2004). After seventy years of corporate regulation, in 2001 and 2002 series of management frauds rocked the investors trust in the market. Scandals like Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, Adelphia, and Waste Management opened a new era of financial manipulation. What is essential to be mentioned is the fact that all these frauds were possible despite all the levels of supervision in place, such as executive directors, external auditors, accounting firms, debt rating agencies, or securities market analysts (Ribstein L., 2002). The most resonant scandal was Enron, which, after being one of the worlds biggest power dealers, revealed in October 2001 losses higher than $70 billion in equity value. WorldCom, which played an important role on telecommunication market, disclosed in March 2002 that its revenues are overstated by capitalizing expenses, losing $180 billion in shareholder equity. Both cases will be discussed in the following section, emphasizing on fraudulent operations and corporations weaknesses. II.1. Enron Short summary: Disclosure date October 2001 Charges False increased profits, hidden liabilities totaling over $1 billion by using off-the-books transactions. Manipulation of the Californian energy market during the electricity crisis, recording total profits of $2.7 billion from trading electricity and gas in western markets (Markham J., 2006). Extorting and gaming the power prices, as well as an overcharge of $175 million for electricity generated by Enron wind farms (Markham J., 2006). Securities fraud, wire fraud, money laundering, insider trading, and filing false income tax returns (for Enrons executives). Auditing firm Arthur Anderson With losses higher than $70 billion in equity value (Bryce R., 2002), Enron scandal is one of the biggest political scandals in American history. In 1985, Enron started its business as an important trader on U.S. energy market, developing its operations within: transactions with natural gas, constructions of power facilities and pipelines, telecommunications services, buying/selling commodities. Its rapid growth offered to the public media a sensation of unstoppable revenues and solid financial stability. Before the public disclosure from 2001, the revenues and the incomes reported by Enron were impressive (Markham J., 2006): in 1998 $31 billion in revenue and $703 million in net income after expenses; in 1999 $40 billion in revenue and $893 million in net income after expenses; in 2000 $100 billion in revenue and $979 million in net income after expenses. In fact, the revenues were not real, the financial image presented to the shareholders being an illusion. In order to hide its losses Enron stretched the limitations of accounting standards and took advantage of all the regulatory lacks. Due to its business specificity, the accounting recording was challenging. First aspect regarded the long-term contracts for which the current accounting rules obliged the company to forecast the future revenues. In this case Enrons income recognition was made at present (or fair) value, using mark-to-market accounting, regardless the prospective economic conditions. The second aspect was linked with Enrons reliance on structured financial transactions and, implicitly, on special purpose entities (SPEs). In this area the accounting standards were questionable, being debated by practitioners because of the difference which could be created between real economic situation and companies financial indicators. Behind this glowing image, Enron built a network of derivatives trading and transactions with SPEs, which generated substantial revenues not only for the company itself, but also for the companys directors involved in the SPEs partnerships. The report of investigation of the Enron Special Investigative Committee (Powers W., et al., 2002) mentioned the amounts by which Enrons employees were illicitly enriched: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Fastow (i.e. Enrons CFO) by at least $30 million, Kopper (i.e. Enrons finance executive) by at least $10 millionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In October 2001 Enron had to recognize expenses of $1.01 billion after tax and two months later, Enron filed for bankruptcy. Enrons failure is a clear example of corporate governance malfunction. Managers were compensated with stock options based on the companys short-term performance with no other restrictions, compensation program that incentivized managers to increase the short-term performance regardless the long-term consequences. Next to Enrons management, part of the blame is assigned to external auditors (Arthur Andersen) and to parties responsible for the companys internal governance (see appendix 1 for a graphic representation of the links between Enrons managers and investors). Analyzing the implications of accounting rules over the Enrons scandal one statement must be made. U.S. GAAP are very extensive and, even more, rigid in its provisions, inspiring financial professionals to find creative accounting solutions to avoid the rules. II.2. WorldCom Short summary: Disclosure date March 2002 Charges Use of undisclosed and improper accounting that materially overstated its income before income taxes and minority interests by approximately $3.055 billion in 2001 and $797 million during the first quarter of 2002  [7]   WorldComs transfer of its costs to its capital accounts violated the established standards of generally accepted accounting principles  [8]  resulting in $3.8 billion fraud. WorldCom violated the anti-fraud and reporting provisions of the federal securities laws  [9]   WorldComs CEO Bernard Ebbers received from the company off-the-books loans of $408 million. Auditing firm Arthur Anderson In 1995 LDDC (Long Distance Discount Company) became WorldCom, one of the biggest telecommunication company on the U.S. market. Its CEO, Bernie Embers, joined the company in its early starts, in 1985. During his administration, the company experienced a period of high growth, with revenues reaching billions of dollars. In 1996, after the acquisition of MFS Communication Inc., WorldCom became the fourth biggest telecommunication company (Markham J., 2006), looking forward to using the opportunities offered by the new breakthrough innovations, such as fiber-optics and Internet. In October 1997 WorldCom announced the merger with MCI Communications for $30 billion. The company continued to grow, reporting earnings of $16 billion (Markham J., 2006) between 1996 and 2000, even if the SEC obstructed the company from considering deductible large amounts spend in research and development. In the early 2000, the entire telecommunication industry started to slow down, and, also, the stock prices were declining. The same happened in WorldComs case. By the middle of 2000, the stock price was almost half its 1999 price. Even so, WorldCom announced surprising profits (Markham J., 2006): $1.4 billion for 2001 and $130 million for the first quarter of 2002 (when in fact the company recorded losses). In March 2002, after an internal audit engagement, WorldCom announced the restatement of its financials figures due to inappropriate accounting recordings of the revenues between beginning of 2001 and first quarter of 2002, revenues which were not in compliance with GGAP provisions. In June 2002, the SEC charges WorldCom for $3.8 billion fraud  [10]  . As it was revealed by the SEC investigation, WorldCom used an accounting artifice to capitalize its line costs (e.g. fees paid by WorldCom to third party services providers) and, in this way, to keep companys earnings at expected levels. WorldCom filed for bankruptcy in July 2002, wiping out $180 billion in shareholder equity (Markham J., 2006). Ebbers was dismissed from the position of WorldComs CEO in April 2002  [11]  after admitting that he borrowed money from WorldCom in its attempt to cover his losses from buying WorldCom shares  [12]  . In 2005 Ebbers was sentenced to 25 years in jail. As presented by SECs WorldCom corporate monitor, Richard Breeden, in his report on the companys measures to restore its governance, WorldCom seemed to meet most of the governance standards of its time (Breeden R., 2003). The companys configuration included all the necessary structures required for corporate governance (such as audit committee, compensation committee etc.), with almost 80% of the directors fulfilling the independence requirements. But, in fact, most of these independents were very strong linked to Ebbers, through their incomes. So, corporate governance is not only accomplishing a checklist with requirements, but being deeply concerned about the independence impediments. In WorldComs case the management board failed to assess the companys risks and to draw corrective risk procedures. In Enrons case, the board allowed the CFO to participate in financial partnerships (e.g. SPEs), searching for his personal gain. In both cases, Enron and WorldCom, the CFOs failed to supply accurate financial data. Their fraud involvement was a real obstacle for which the problems were discovered too late. Hard interpretations of GAAPs provisions regarding net income and future earnings as well as unrealistic cash flow statements were present also in both companies. Furthermore, lacking of an appropriate internal control system, the adjustments in the companies financial reports were easy to be made by the high level employees. SARBANES-OXLEY ACT OF 2002 The scandals of accounting fraud, corporate misbehaviors, non-compliance with business ethics, and bankruptcies occurred in high-level companies like Enron and WorldCom revealed the markets strong need for deeper reforms in corporate regulations. In July 2002, the U.S. Congress ratified the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (known also as the Public Company Accounting Reform and Investors Protection Act of 2002) in response to the corporate crisis. One of the most important legislative action since the Acts of 1933 and 1934, Sarbanes-Oxley has as objectives to rebuild the investors trust in the market and to enhance the transparency and morality of public companies, avoiding future similar allegations. Through the Sarbanes-Oxley Act are addressed issues like managements legal liability, increased independence rules for internal governance agents, mandatory internal control audits, and increased managements responsibility for financial reporting. Furthermore, Sarbanes-Oxley increases the SECs power to determine that an individual is unfit to serve as an officer or director of a publicly-traded company, even in the absence of a judicial finding of a violation of the federal securities laws (Fisch J., 2004). Source: Anand S., 2007, Essentials of Sarbanes-Oxley, John Wiley Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-0-470-05668-4, page 23. Emphasizing on the importance of business codes of ethics, in 2003, Harvard Law Review explained the Acts provisions related to self-policing as a consequence of the general perception that these series of scandals and bankruptcies are not just a failure of the regulations, but a failure of management behavior. It was not enough anymore to just comply on formal managerial structure and independence requirements. Both, Enron and WorldCom had management boards that complied with independence standards, but were not able to work efficiently due to conflict of interests and strong relationships with CEOs. Furthermore, management boards must be deeply involved in companies business and must understand the risks, rather than simply remain independent (Fisch J., 2004). Enrons and WorldComs boards were far away from taking real actions against CEOs/CFOs practices or from reacting in real-time to companies difficulties. Considering the patterns of fraud cases and the fact that CEOs and CFOs acted as primary deceivers, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act states, as main provision, the necessity to increase top-managements responsibilities for the consistency of companies financial statements. IV.1. SOXs summary The Act requirements must be perceived by the companies as a starting point in building operational processes, with an enhanced internal control system through entire business. Complying with SOX is not a one-time project, but a continuous improvement process, with executives going beyond compliance and focusing on the quality of overall business operations (KPMG, 2004). Source: KPMG, 2004, Sarbanes-Oxley Section 404: An Overview of the PCAOBs Requirements, KPMG International Despite the fact that the Sarbanes-Oxley Act is structured in eleven different sections, the law itself must be understood as an overall, compact regulation, and companies must seek for complete compliance. Still, the Acts objectives are more obvious in certain sections, while other sections are important through their compliant difficulties (Anand S., 2007). The summary of the Acts titles is presented in appendix 2. Still, from the compliance point of view and relevance for the two fraud cases previously presented, the most important sections of the Act  [13]  are: Section 302 regarding the corporate responsibility for financial reports; In order to avoid deceiving financial statements Section 302 includes provisions related to internal controls and the management responsibility to evaluate the efficiency of these controls and to disclose any deficiency which might have a negative impact over the financial indicators. Section 401 for Disclosures in Periodic Reports; The financial statements must contain accurate information and must be issued to the public investors with a clear display in order to avoid any misrepresentation or incorrect statement. Also, the transactions, especially the liabilities, from off-balance sheet must be transparent and presented in the reporting file. Section 404 is related with the management mandatory evaluation and certification of companies internal control systems; This section raised many discussions, being one of the most controversial provisions of the Act. The main reason for these discussions was the character of this section which implies the highest amount of resources and efforts to be spend in order to obtain SOX compliance. As stated by Section 404, in annual financial statements, executive directors must declare their acknowledgement of the responsibility for establishing, implementing and maintaining the internal control system. The main purpose of this statement is to present the investors the internal controls structure and to assure them about its efficiency. Section 409 stating the necessity of real-time disclosures when important changes are made in companies financial indicators during the periods between quarterly reports. Without this section the investors would have to base their decisions on obsolete statements. Unlike Section 404, this section didnt implied heavy resource allocation. IV.2. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) The Sarbanes-Oxley Act created the PCAOB, a private-sector, nonprofit corporation, having as mission to oversee the auditors of public companies in order to  protect investors and the public interest by promoting informative, fair, and independent audit reports  [14]   By creating the PCAOB, the self-regulating model of accounting industry was no longer valid, the responsibility and authority of creating standards and enforcing audits for public companies being transferred from the profession side (AICPA) to an independent party (PCAOB). Through its provisions, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act obliged, for the first time in regulating history, the auditors of public companies to be overseen by external and independent parties. The SEC maintained its authoritative power over the PCAOB, by naming the governing board and by amending the organizations bylaws, standards and budgets  [15]  . SECTION 404. MANAGEMENT ASSESSMENT OF INTERNAL CONTROLS V.1. Section 404 Rules As stated by the SOX Section 404, there are a set of rules for management to follow in assessing the internal controls structure within the company. The broad definition of the term internal control refers to all the areas within an organizations business, but inside SOXs terminology, the internal control term is used strictly for defining the internal control over financial reporting. First of all, the management is responsible for creating the internal controls structure, in accordance with his business processes. An important aspect must be clarified here. Neither internal auditors, nor external auditors are in charge with developing the internal control keys. The companys CEO and the top-management team must take this responsibility and act in accordance as a whole. Furthermore, it is not enough just to create the system, but to periodically update it in order to keep up with the business changing rhythm. The assessment of internal controls must be made with a recognized framework. In the U.S. most companies uses COSO framework (the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission framework), or COBIT framework (the Control Objectives for Information and related Technology framework). (We will not discuss these frameworks in this report.) The internal controls assessment must be performed annually, at the year-end. The external audit company must not reassess the internal control system, but perform an audit in relation with the managements appraisal. In other words, the external audit must not redo the entire internal control structure assessment, but only to rely on the managements performance regarding the internal control appraisal. Even so, senior management must obtain the full confidence that its assessment presents a true landscape of the internal control system, as of the year-end, with comfortable assurance that any material misstatement can be avoided or identified (The Institute of Internal Auditors, 2008). V.2. Consequences of Implementing Section 404 Costs of implementing SOX 404. Generally speaking, the costs derived from internal controls implementation and testing can be easily identified as payments for audit and compliance employees, time spent by operational employees and external audit fees. Still, in the first year of compliance, overall efforts were overwhelming due to work amount needed to be done, work which included analyzing documentation, verifying accounts balances, monitoring and evaluating controls keys performance and efficiency, establishing reporting structure. One important reason for which compliance process was so complex was the fact that a major part of the control keys were done manually, with very much time-consuming, and only a small part of control keys were IT-based. Next to these costs, Langevoort D. (2006) mentions the opportunity costs and the distractions, referring to the fact that some audit tests require direct observation of operations (e.g. cash processing) and explanations from in-charge personnel or manager. He is going even further by stating that direct control can create discomfort to employees which will impact the sense of trust and decrease the employees loyalty. As mentioned before, the compliance with Section 404 turned out to be the most expensive part of the entire Sarbanes-Oxley Act. In August 2004, the Financial Executives Institute revealed a study of 224 companies which indicated costs up to $3 million for the biggest companies (Rittenberg L., Miller P., 2005). Even more, in an article from BusinessWeek, William Zollars, chairman and CEO of Yellow Roadway, the U.S. largest trucking firm, explained that his company paid about $9 million to accountants for their work, amount which represented 3% of annual profits for 2004  [16]  . After first year of SOX implementation, an analysis carried out by the PCAOB concluded that the costs for compliance were high because, in many cases, too many audit tests were performed and documented by auditors, companies spending too much time on internal controls related to financial reporting processes (OBrien P., 2006). Still, as presented in the left hand picture, in January 2005, according to a survey developed by the Institute of Internal Auditors, 72% of respondents considered that the costs are higher than the benefits for SOX 404 first year of implementation. After six years of SOX compliance, in August 2008, Dodwell W. argues, in an article in the CPA Journal, that initial implementation expenses made by companies are paying off. Next to the costs presented above, the cost-benefit analysis should also consider: concen

How Do We Define Afforestation And Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay

How Do We Define Afforestation And Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay The effects of an increasing population, growing pollution and the consequent decrease in forest area on the environment are well known. Afforestation is the answer to some extent, but needs to be carried out in a structured way with thorough knowledge of local environment, vegetation, soil type and socio-economic issues; not knowing or ignoring local conditions can prove extremely dangerous to the ecosystem. A sustainable and well-planned afforestation project helps improve soil conservation, catchment management and water quality. Such a project can also act as a wind barricade, as in the case of the The Great Green Wall Project in China. A very ambitious afforestation project that has spanned 70 years and 4,480km, it involves the building of a tree wall skirting the Gobi Desert. The tree wall is being built with the sole aim of fighting and acting as a barricade to ferocious sandstorms originating from the desert. Afforestation projects undertaken without a complete understanding of the surroundings can cause additional environmental damages. For instance , fast-growing trees commonly used in timber plantations consume huge amounts of water, hence depleting water resources around the area. There are also concerns about irreversible changes in the soil caused by exotic species. For example, pine trees are known to turn the soil acidic. The water from the soil eventually trickles down to local streams and water bodies, which, in turn, causes harm to both the water and land ecosystems. The concern mainly arises with large-scale monoculture tree plantations in Third World countries. Such plantations are usually set up for the purposes of abundant and cheap supply of raw materials to industrialised countries. A number of non-government organisations have joined hands to form a global network in order to share information and implement joint action against such plantations. In India, because of its large population, there has been growing demand for lands that are used in primary industries, such as arable land, grazing land and forestry land. And a considerable amount of cultivation and afforestation has taken place in response to such demand. This study deals with these three types of lands and analyzes the economic impact in India of cultivation and afforestation, using a Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. The model explicitly addresses substitution between traditional goods (fuelwood, cattle dung, and draft animals) and modern goods (fossil fuel, chemical fertilizer, and capital such as agro machinery). The results show that the two types of land use change (cultivation and afforestation) have many contrasting effects on various indices. Due to population pressures, in India demand has been increasing for lands that are used in primary industries. This includes arable land, grazing land and forestry land. In response to this situation, many cultivation and afforestation projects have been conducted. In the 1950s and 1960s, numerous cultivation initiatives were actively carried out and approx. 700,000 hectares per year were cultivated. However, because India has achieved food self-sufficiency and since scarce land remains to cultivate, in recent years very little cultivation has taken place. Instead , many irrigation projects have been conducted and the focal emphasis of the nations arable land policy has shifted from quantitative expansion to qualitative enhancement. China has deforested most of its historically wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, due to over-harvesting of trees beyond sustainable yield.[3] Although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals were set for an 80 year time horizon and are not significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, which aims to replant a great deal of forests and halt the expansion of the Gobi desert. A law promulgated in 1981 requires that every citizen over the age of 11 plant at least one tree per year. As a result, China currently has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 square kilometers of afforestation in 2008. However, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System North Africa:- In North Africa, the sahara forest project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse has been proposed. Some projects have also been launched in countries as Senegal to revert desertification. At present (2010) African leaders are discussing the combining of national countries in their continent to increase effectiveness. In addition, other projects as the Keita project in Niger have been launched in the past, and have been able to locally revert damage done by desertification. Europe:- Europe has deforested the majority of its historical forests. The European Union has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland back into forest and payments for the management of forest. Between 1993 and 1997, EU afforestation policies made possible the re-forestation of over 5,000 square kilometres of land. A second program, running between 2000 and 2006, afforested in excess of 1000 square kilometres of land (precise statistics not yet available). A third such program began in 2007. In Poland, the National Program of Afforestation was introduced by the government after World War II, when total area of forests shrank to 20% of countrys territory. Consequently, forested areas of Poland grew year by year, and on December 31, 2006, forests covered 29% of the country (see: Polish forests). It is planned that by 2050, forests will cover 33% of Poland. According to FAO statistics, Spain had the fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13,5 to 17,9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26,6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2005, that figure had risen to 35,4%. Spain today has the third largest forest area in the European Union, after Sweden and Finland. Iran Iran is considered a low forest cover region of the world with present cover approximating seven percent of the land area. This is a value reduced by an estimated six million hectares of virgin forest, which includes oak, almond and pistacio. Due to soil substrates, it is difficult to achieve afforestation on a large scale compared to other temperate areas endowed with more fertile and less rocky and arid soil conditions. Consequently, most of the afforestation is conducted with non-native species, leading to habitat destruction for native flora and fauna, and resulting in an accelerated loss of biodiversity. DEFORESTATION:- DEFINITION: Deforestation is the clearance of forests by logging and/or burning (popularly known as slash and burn) Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earths land surface Causes and Effects of Deforestation Trees are one of the most important aspects of the planet we live in. Trees are vitally important to the environment, animals, and of course for us humans. They are important for the climate of the Earth, they act as filters of carbon dioxide, they are habitats and shelters to millions of species, and they are also important for their aesthetic appeal. However , the trees on our planet are being depleted at a very fast rate. According to some estimates, more than 50 percent of the tree cover has disappeared due to human activity. ROOT OF CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION: http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSRNsylTo0bYxhYiESWK3QiGD_Ih95eEOFBXWj5vKVKBMnhfsAt=1usg=__vHcZj32oCodhQS3Qwvk3z40Ln4Q=Almost one-third of the earths land is covered with forest. They play an important role in sustaining life. They house over 60% of the worlds biodiversity and provide human beings with many products such as food, medicine, fuel, lumber, paper etc. There are two main causes of deforestation. The primary and most common reasons for deforestation are known as the direct causes. Logging, overpopulation , urbanization, dam construction etc are under direct causes. The other main cause of deforestation is known as natural causes since they are brought by the Mother Nature. n increase in population also means an increase in produce consumption. Thus, rainforests are destroyed and converted to cattle pasture to supply the burgeoning demand for meat. In Central America, almost half of the rainforests have been slashed and burned for cattle farming in order comply with foreign demands. Twenty-five per cent of the Amazons forests have also been destroyed for cattle ranches. Lack of government legislation for land reforms has also cleared the forest especially in developing countries like of the South East Asian nations. People in that region are among the poorest in the world and are desperate for a piece of land. Unequal distribution of resources has led these people to find their way to exploit the forests. Another reason that denudes the forest is exploitative economic development schemes and the powerlessness of government to safeguard its resources . Poor countries in their attempt to increase their revenues are in a way exploiting their resources like the forests. Timber is exported to reduce the national debt. Countries rich in mineral resources open their doors to multinational mining corporations that clear the forests as they go with their operations. The government especially those belonging in the Third World cannot curb commercial logging and implement a total log ban in exchange to higher foreign exchange rates . Development projects like dams, roads, and airports contracted by the government also cause deforestation. While most causes of deforestation occur due to human activities, there are uncontrolled causes of deforestation such as forest fires, volcanic eruption, and typhoon. Forest fires are started by lightning, and strong winds help to spread the flames. Drought in the forest has increased the amount of flammable bush and debris on the forest floor. Forest fires destroy immeasurable amount of valuable timber. They kill not only trees but also other living things. . Effects of Deforestation: There are a number of adverse effects of deforestation, such as: Erosion of Soil: When forest areas are cleared, it results in exposing the soil to the sun, making it very dry and eventually, infertile , due to volatile nutrients such as nitrogen being lost. In addition, when there is rainfall, it was hes away the rest of the nutrients, which flow with the rain water into waterways. Because of this, merely replanting trees may not help in solving the problems caused by deforestation, for by the time the trees mature, the soil will be totally devoid of essential nutrients. Ultimately, cultivation in this land will also become impossible, resulting in the land becoming useless. Large tracts of land will be rendered permanently impoverished due to soil erosion. http://www.mentalfloss.com/blogs/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/amazon_deforestation.jpg Disruption of the Water Cycle: Trees contribute in a large way in maintaining the water cycle. They draw up water via their roots, which is then released into the atmosphere. A large part of the water that circulates in the ecosystem of rainforests, for instance, remains inside the plants. When these trees are cut down it results in the climate getting drier in that area. Loss of Biodiversity: The unique biodiversity of various geographical areas is being los t on a scale that is quite unprecedented . Even though tropical rainforests make up just 6 percent of the surface area of the Earth, about 80-90 percent of the entire species of the exist here. Due to massive deforestation , about 50 to 100 species of animals are being lost each day. The outcome of which is the extinction of a functions of forests is to absorb and store great amounts of water quickly when there are heavy rains. When forests are cut down, this regulation of the flow of water is disrupted, which leads to alternating periods of flood and then drought in the affected area. Climate Change: It is well known that global warming is being caused largely due to emissions of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. However, what is not known quite as well is that deforestation has a direction association with carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere. Trees act as a major storage depot for carbon, since they absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is then used to produce carbohydrates, fats, and proteins that make up trees. When deforestation occurs, many of the trees are burnt or they are allowed to rot, which results in releasing the carbon that is stored in them as carbon dioxide. This, in turn, leads to greater concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRcfO6foNuW2NYYb26NeAm-vC2n-XhY3tcOlchwfyTERQKnwE8t=1usg=__Px7tkSf6dmHkFM1tJIGd3MLCdnc= POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION: The positive consequences of deforestation Depending on the needs of the social group concerned, deforestation has made it possible for communities to be built. Forests make way for residential houses, office buildings and factories. Governments are able to build roads to make trade and transport easier and therefore more convenient to residents. Deforestation can also mean the conversion of forest land to productive land for agricultural uses. This results in better and more abundant production of food and materials, virtually eradicating periods of want and lack. Economically, deforestation has contributed much in giving many communities the opportunity to make positive changes in their lives. The negative consequences of deforestation Unfortunately, the negative consequences of deforestation far outweigh its positive effects. Here are a few of them: 1. Exposing soil to heat and rain. When forests are cleared, soil cover, which consists mainly of vegetation, is removed as well. This exposes the bare soil to extreme conditions produced by the suns heat and rainwater. With these activities alternating, the soil quickly compacts. As rainwater flows, it will wash out the nutrients and other organic materials that make the soil rich and fertile. Add to that the frequent activities of tilling, cropping and grazing which gradually results to the degradation of the soils quality. These practices are specially a concern in areas where forest zones are drier. Agriculture practice on top of deforestation can result to the desertification of many areas. Desertification is also a direct result of the demand for the soil to produce more (as a consequence of the increase in human population), thereby decreasing to a significant degree the lands carrying capacity. 2. Flooding. Deforestation can result to watersheds that are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams. Trees are highly effective in absorbing water quantities, keeping the amount of water in watersheds to a manageable level. The forest also serves as a cover against erosion. Once they are gone, too much water can result to downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of the world. As fertile topsoil is eroded and flooded into the lower regions, many coastal fisheries and coral reefs suffer from the sedimentation brought by the flooding. This results to negative effects in the economic viability of many businesses and fatalities in wildlife population . 3. Non-suitability of areas for conversion. Most of the areas that have undergone deforestation are actually unsuitable for long-term agricultural use such as ranching and farming. Once deprived of their forest cover, the lands rapidly degrade in quality, losing their fertility and arability. The soil in many deforested areas is also unsuitable for supporting annual crops. Much of the grassy areas are also not as productive compared to more arable soils and are therefore not fit for long-term cattle grazing. 4. The displacement of indigenous communities and their traditional way of life. When governments decide to offer forests for deforestation mainly to open up areas for civilized communities, access to forest resources by indigenous peoples are ignored. In fact, indigenous peoples are hardly included in economic and political decisions that directly affect their lives. This encroachment ignores their rights as much as it takes away the resources that their ancestors have bestowed upon them. 5. The loss in the number of biodiversity. This is probably the most serious consequence of deforestation . Put simply, it means the destruction and extinction of many plant and animal species , many of whom remain unknown and whose benefits will be left undiscovered. Environmental problems:- http://ts3.mm.bing.net/images/thumbnail.aspx?q=249293773882id=08ef0795e99508a93ba519b21853fa1aurl=http%3a%2f%2fecogreentips.com%2fwp-content%2fimages%2fdeforestation.jpg Atmospheric:- Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. But recent calculations suggest that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (excluding peatland emissions) contribute about 12% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions with a range from 6 to 17%. Trees and other plants remove carbon (in the form of carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis and release oxygen back into the atmosphere during normal respiration. Only when actively growing can a tree or forest remove carbon over an annual or longer timeframe. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. In order for forests to take up carbon, the wood must be harvested and turned into long-lived products and trees must be re-planted Deforestation may cause carbon stores held in soil to be released. Forests are stores of carbon and can be either sinks or sources depending upon environmental circumstances. Mature forests alternate between being net sinks and net sources of carbon dioxide (see carbon dioxide sink and carbon cycle). Reducing emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) in developing countries has emerged as new potential to complement ongoing climate policies. The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of worlds oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation will have no effect on atmospheric oxygen levels.However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO2, which contributes to global warming. Forests are also able to extract carbon dioxide and pollutants from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability. http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTGItPfLUiWZL07G_REq7tovGyqwEssPgik1RflDpEl6klE7WcS Hydrological:- The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture.Deforestation reduces soil cohesion, so that erosion, flooding and landslides ensue.Forests enhance the recharge of aquifers in some locales, however, forests are a major source of aquifer depletion on most locales. Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscapes capacity to intercept, retain and transpire precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into flash flooding and more localized floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased evapotranspiration, which lessens atmospheric moisture which in some cases affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans. According to one study, in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s.[citation needed] Trees, and plants in general, affect the water cycle significantly: their canopies intercept a proportion of precipitation, which is then evaporated back to the atmosphere (canopy interception); their litter, stems and trunks slow down surface runoff; their roots create macropores large conduits in the soil that increase infiltration of water; they contribute to terrestrial evaporation and reduce soil moisture via transpiration; their litter and other organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water. their leaves control the humidity of the atmosphere by transpiring. 99% of the water absorbed by the roots moves up to the leaves and is transpired. As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem functions or human services. The forest may have little impact on flooding in the case of large rainfall events, which overwhelm the storage capacity of forest soil if the soils are at or close to saturation. Tropical rainforests produce about 30% of our planets fresh water. Soil:- Deforestation for the use of clay in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. The hill depicted is Morro da Covanca, in Jacarepaguà ¡ Undisturbed forests have a very low rate of soil loss, approximately 2 metric tons per square kilometer (6 short tons per square feet).[citation needed] Deforestation generally increases rates of soil erosion, by increasing the amount of runoff and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment. Chinas Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the rivers nickname Chinas sorrow). Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees. Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying bedrock. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of landslides, which can threaten people living nearby. However most deforestation only affects the trunks of trees, allowing for the roots to stay rooted, negating the landslide. Ecological:- Deforestation results in declines in biodiversity. The removal or destruction of areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. Forests support biodiversity, providing habitat for wildlife; moreover, forests foster medicinal conservation. With forest biotopes being irreplaceable source of new drugs (such as taxol), deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably. Since the tropical rainforests are the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and about 80% of the worlds known biodiversity could be found in tropical rainforests, removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity. It has been estimated that we are losing 137 plant, animal and insect species every single day due to rainforest deforestation, which equates to 50,000 species a year. Others state that tropical rainforest deforestation is contributing to the ongoing Holocene mass extinction.The known extinction rates from deforestation rates are very low, approximately 1 species per year from mammals and birds which extrapolates to approximately 23,000 species per year for all species. Predictions have been made that more than 40% of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. Such predictions were called into question by 1995 data that show that within regions of Southeast Asia much of the original forest has been converted to monospecific plantations, but that potentially endangered species are few and tree flora remains widespread and stable. Scientific understanding of the process of extinction is insufficient to accurately make predictions about the impact of deforestation on biodiversity.[56] Most predictions of forestry related biodiversity loss are based on species-area models, with an underlying assumption that as the forest declines species diversity will decline similarly.However, many such models have been proven to be wrong and loss of habitat does not necessarily lead to large scale loss of species.[57] Species-area models are known to overpredict the number of species known to be threatened in areas where actual deforestation is ongoing, and greatly overpredict the number of threatened species that are widespread. Economic impact:- Damage to forests and other aspects of nature could halve living standards for the worlds poor and reduce global GDP by about 7% by 2050, a major report concluded at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) meeting in Bonn. Historically utilization of forest products, including timber and fuel wood, have played a key role in human societies, comparable to the roles of water and cultivable land. Today, developed countries continue to utilize timber for building houses, and wood pulp for paper. In developing countries almost three billion people rely on wood for heating and cooking. The forest products industry is a large part of the economy in both developed and developing countries. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or over-exploitation of wood products, typically leads to loss of long-term income and long term biological productivity (hence reduction in natures services). West Africa, Madagascar, Southeast Asia and many other regions have experienced lower revenue because of declining timber harvests. Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to national economies annually. The new procedures to get amounts of wood are causing more harm to the economy and overpowers the amount of money spent by people employed in logging. Control:- Reducing emissions Major international organizations, including the United Nations and the World Bank, have begun to develop programs aimed at curbing deforestation. The blanket term Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) describes these sorts of programs, which use direct monetary or other incentives to encourage developing countries to limit and/or roll back deforestation. Funding has been an issue, but at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference of the Parties-15 (COP-15) in Copenhagen in December 2009, an accord was reached with a collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources, including forestry and investments through international institutions, that will approach USD 30 billion for the period 2010 2012. Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDD targets. These tools, which rely on remote forest monitoring using satellite imagery and other data s ources, include the Center for Global Developments FORMA (Forest Monitoring for Action) initiative and the Group on Earth Observations Forest Carbon Tracking Portal. Methodological guidance for forest monitoring was also emphasized at COP-15 The environmental organization Avoided Deforestation Partners leads the campaign for development of REDD through funding from the U.S. government. http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQOM4uFrGLFAGFLzmyTTF34LtYfjU3R31OB7CxXwzCEWWxh_UV4 Farming New methods are being developed to farm more intensively, such as high-yield hybrid crops, greenhouse, autonomous building gardens, and hydroponics. These methods are often dependent on chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic agriculture, cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Intensive farming can also decrease soil nutrients by consuming at an accelerated rate the trace minerals needed for crop growth.[citation needed] Forest management Efforts to stop or slow deforestation have been attempted for many centuries because it has long been known that deforestation can cause environmental damage sufficient in some cases to cause societies to collapse. In Tonga, paramount rulers developed policies designed to prevent conflicts between short-term gains from converting forest to farmland and long-term problems forest loss would cause, while during the seventeenth and 18th centuries in Tokugawa, Japan, the shoguns developed a highly sophisticated system of long-term planning to stop and even reverse deforestation of the preceding centuries through substituting timber by other products and more efficient use of land that had been farmed for many centuries. In 16th century Germany landowners also developed silviculture to deal with the problem of deforestation. However, these policies tend to be limited to environments with good rainfall, no dry season and